Surveys and Policy: Lessons from the CIS

Up until the 1980s, inovation research was largely limited to case studies or to data on the creation of new knowledge, as measured by R&D investments, scientific publications, patented inventions, and the stock of scientists and engineers. The dominant perspective viewed innovation as synonymous with R&D based creative activities to develop technical inventions. Theories of innovation were frequently based on science-push models in which inputs of R&D or scientists led to outputs of publications or patents.